Pediatric Eye Examination

- REFERENCES

1.     Yekta, A., Hooshmand, E., Saatchi, M., Ostadimoghaddam, H., Asharlous, A., Taheri, A. and Khabazkhoob, M., 2022. Global prevalence and causes of visual impairment and blindness in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Current Ophthalmology, 34(1), p.1.

2.     https://www.statista.com/statistics/1230371/total-population-of-egypt-by-age-group/

3.     https://www.aaojournal.org/article/S0161-6420(22)00866-1/pdf#:~:text=Pediatric%20Eye%20Evaluations%20PPP,-P229&text=A%20more%20accurate%20assessment%20of,crowd)%20the%20optotype%20being%20identified.

4.    https://www.aoa.org/AOA/Documents/Practice%20Management/Clinical%20Guidelines/EBO%20Guidelines/Comprehensive%20Pediatric%20Eye%20and%20Vision%20Exam.pdf

5.     https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/145714/9789241548960_eng.pdf?sequence=1

6.     Wang J, Ren X, Shen L, et al. Development of refractive error in individual children with regressed retinopathy of prematurity. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54:6018-24.

7.     Eibschitz-Tsimhoni M, Friedman T, Naor J, et al. Early screening for amblyogenic risk factors lowers the prevalence and severity of amblyopia. J AAPOS 2000; 4:194-99.

8.     Atkinson J, Braddick O, Nardini M, Anker S. Infant hyperopia: detection, distribution, changes and correlates-outcomes from the Cambridge infant screening programs. Optom Vis Sci 2007; 84:84-96.

9.     Holmes JM, Lazar EL, Melia BM, et al. Effect of age on response to amblyopia treatment in children. Arch Ophthalmol 2011; 129:1451-57.

10.  U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Vision screening for children 1 to 5 years of age: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation statement. Pediatrics 2011; 127:340-46.

11.  Dobson V, Clifford-Donaldson CE, Green TK, et al. Optical treatment reduces amblyopia in astigmatic children who receive spectacles before kindergarten. Ophthalmology 2009; 116:1002-8.

12.  Kemper AR, Wallace DK, Patel N, Crews JE. Preschool vision testing by health providers in the United States: findings from the 2006-2007 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. J AAPOS 2011; 15:480-83.

13.  Jones-Jordan LA, Sinnott LT, Manny RE, et al. Early childhood refractive error and parental history of myopia as predictors of myopia. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2010; 51:115-21.

14.  Kulp MT, Ciner E, Maguire M, et al. Uncorrected hyperopia and preschool early literacy: results of the Vision in Preschoolers-Hyperopia in Preschoolers (VIP-HIP) study. Ophthalmology 2016;123:681-89.

15.  Shankar S, Evans MA, Bobier WR. Hyperopia and emergent literacy of young children: pilot study. Optom Vis Sci 2007; 84:1031-38.

16.  van Rijn LJ, Krijnen JS, Nefkens-Molster AE, et al. Spectacles may improve reading speed in children with hyperopia. Optom Vis Sci 2014; 91:397-403.

17.  Gwiazda J, Deng L, Manny R, Norton TT. Seasonal variations in the progression of myopia in children enrolled in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2014; 55:752-58.

18.  Comet Group. Myopia stabilization and associated factors among participants in the Correction of Myopia Evaluation Trial (COMET). Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2013; 54:7871-84.

19.  Tongue, A.C. and Cibis, G.W., 1981. Brückner test. Ophthalmology, 88(10), pp.1041-1044

20.  Rajalakshmi AR, Rajeshwari M. Efficacy of Bruckner's test for screening of refractive errors by nonophthalmologist versus ophthalmologist: A comparative study. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol. 2019;26:185-188.

21.  American Academy of Ophthalmology Basic and Clinical Science Course Subcommittee. Basic and clinical science course. Pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: Section 6, 2022-2023. San Francisco, CA: American Academy of Ophthalmology; 2022.

22.  American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. Policy Statement. Refractions in children. San Francisco, CA: American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus; 2012. https://aapos.org/HigherLogic/System/DownloadDocumentFile.ashx?DocumentFileKey=99eb2c55-1e37-f226-0a58-34dca1cc1165. Accessed August 25, 2022.

23.  Lanca CC, Rowe FJ. Measurement of fusional vergence: A systematic review. Strabismus. 2019;27:88-113.

24.  Lagstein O, Hecht I, Anteby I. Comparison of a new, filter-free stereopsis test (BEST) with the RandotStereotest in a pediatric cohort. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2020;57:129-135.

25.  Procianoy L, Procianoy E. The accuracy of binocular fixation preference for the diagnosis of strabismic amblyopia. J AAPOS. 2010;14:205-210.

26.  Sener EC, Mocan MC, Gedik S, et al. The reliability of grading the fixation preference test for the assessment of interocular visual acuity differences in patients with strabismus. J AAPOS. 2002;6:191-194.

27.  Wright KW, Walonker F, Edelman P. 10-diopter fixation test for amblyopia. Arch Ophthalmol.

28.  1981;99:1242-1246.

29.  Frank JW. The clinical usefulness of the induced tropia test for amblyopia. Am Orthopt J. 1983;33:60-69.

30.  Wallace DK. Tests of fixation preference for amblyopia. Am Orthopt J. 2005;55:76-81.

31.  Friedman DS, Katz J, Repka MX, et al. Lack of concordance between fixation preference and HOTV optotype visual acuity in preschool children: The Baltimore Pediatric Eye Disease Study. Ophthalmology.2008;115:1796-1799.

32.  Cotter SA, Tarczy-Hornoch K, Song E, et al. Fixation preference and visual acuity testing in a population-based cohort of preschool children with amblyopia risk factors. Ophthalmology. 2009;116:145-153. Hakim OM. Association between fixation preference testing and strabismic pseudoamblyopia. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2007;44:174-177.

33.  World Health Organization. Consultation on development of standards for characterization of vision loss and visual functioning. Geneva, 4-5 September 2003. Accessed August 25, 2022 https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/68601. Accessed August 25, 2022.

34.  Morale SE, Hughbanks-Wheaton DK, Cheng C, et al. Visual acuity assessment of children with special needs. Am Orthopt J. 2012;62:90-98.

35.  Vision in Preschoolers Study Group. Preschool vision screening tests administered by nurse screeners compared with lay screeners in the vision in preschoolers study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46:2639-2648.

36.  Cyert L, Schmidt P, Maguire M, et al. Vision in Preschoolers (VIP) Study Group. Threshold visual acuity testing of preschool children using the crowded HOTV and Lea symbols acuity tests. J AAPOS. 2003;7:396-399.

37.  Committee on Vision. Recommended standard procedures for the clinical measurement and specification of visual acuity. Report of Working Group 39. Assembly of Behavioral and Social Sciences, National Research Council, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Adv Ophthalmol. 1980;41:103-148.

38.  Candy TR, Mishoulam SR, Nosofsky RM, Dobson V. Adult discrimination performance for pediatric acuity test optotypes. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52:4307-4313.

39.  Hyvarinen L, Nasanen R, Laurinen P. New visual acuity test for pre-school children. Acta Ophthalmol (Copenh). 1980;58:507-511.

40.  Vision in Preschoolers (VIP) Study Group. Effect of age using Lea symbols or HOTV for preschool vision screening. Optom Vis Sci. 2010;87:87-95.

41.  Chaplin PK, Bradford GE. A historical review of distance vision screening eye charts: What to toss, what to keep, and what to replace. NASN Sch Nurse. 2011;26:221-228.

42.  Rentschler I, Hilz R, Brettel H. Spatial tuning properties in human amblyopia cannot explain the loss of optotype acuity. Behav Brain Res. 1980;1:433-443.

43.  Stager DR, Everett ME, Birch EE. Comparison of crowding bar and linear optotype acuity in amblyopia. Am Orthopt J. 1990;40:51-56.

44.  Youngson RM. Anomaly in visual acuity testing in children. Br J Ophthalmol. 1975;59:168-170.

45.  Ying GS, Kulp MT, Maguire M, et al. Sensitivity of screening tests for detecting vision in preschoolerstargeted vision disorders when specificity is 94%. Optom Vis Sci. 2005;82:432-438.

46.  Morad Y, Werker E, Nemet P. Visual acuity tests using chart, line, and single optotype in healthy and amblyopic children. J AAPOS. 1999;3:94-97.

47.  Saarela TP, Westheimer G, Herzog MH. The effect of spacing regularity on visual crowding. J Vis. 2010;10:17.

48.  Drover JR, Wyatt LM, Stager DR, Birch EE. The teller acuity cards are effective in detecting amblyopia. Optom Vis Sci. 2009;86:755-759.

49.  Friendly DS, Jaafar MS, Morillo DL. A comparative study of grating and recognition visual acuity testing in children with anisometropic amblyopia without strabismus. Am J Ophthalmol. 1990;110:293-299.

50.  Portnoy JZ, Thompson HS, Lennarson L, Corbett JJ. Pupillary defects in amblyopia. Am J Ophthalmol.1983;96:609-614.

51.  Wilson LB, Melia M, Kraker RT, et al. Accuracy of autorefraction in children: A report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology. 2020;127:1259-1267.

52.  Guo X, Shakarchi AF, Block SS, et al. Non-cycloplegic compared with cycloplegic refraction in a Chicago school-aged population. Ophthalmology. 2022.

53.  Fan DS, Rao SK, Ng JS, et al. Comparative study on the safety and efficacy of different cycloplegic agents in children with darkly pigmented irides. Clin Experiment Ophthalmol. 2004;32:462-467.

54.  Rosenbaum AL, Bateman JB, Bremer DL, Liu PY. Cycloplegic refraction in esotropic children. Cyclopentolate versus atropine. Ophthalmology. 1981;88:1031-1034.

55.  Khoo BK, Koh A, Cheong P, Ho NK. Combination cyclopentolate and phenylephrine for mydriasis in premature infants with heavily pigmented irides. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2000;37:15-20.

56.  Apt L, Henrick A. Pupillary dilatation with single eyedrop mydriatic combinations. Am J Ophthalmol.1980;89:553-559.

57.  Nunes AF, Monteiro PML, Ferreira FBP, Nunes AS. Convergence insufficiency and accommodative insufficiency in children. BMC Ophthalmol. 2019;19:58.

58.  Satgunam P, Datta S, Sumalini R. Near vision in individuals with Down syndrome: A vision screening study. Eye (Lond). 2019;33:1254-1260.

59.  Guyton DL, O'Connor GM. Dynamic retinoscopy. Curr Opin Ophthalmol. 1991;2:78-80.

60.  McClelland JF, Parkes J, Hill N, et al. Accommodative dysfunction in children with cerebral palsy: A population-based study. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2006;47:1824-1830.

61.  Hunter DG. Dynamic retinoscopy: The missing data. Surv Ophthalmol. 2001;46:269-274.

62.  Seshadri J, Lakshminarayanan V. Screening efficiency of the Hardy-Rand-Rittler (HRR) colour test (4thedn). J Mod Opt. 2007;54:1361-1365.

63.  National Center for Health Statistics. Color vision deficiencies in youths 12-17 years of age. United States. Vital Health Stat, Ser 11, DHEW Publ no. (HRA) 74-1616, no. 134, 1974.

64.  Gandhi NG, Prakalapakorn SG, El-Dairi MA, et al. Icare ONE rebound vs Goldmann applanation tonometry in children with known or suspected glaucoma. Am J Ophthalmol. 2012;154:843-849.

65.  Lambert SR, Melia M, Buffenn AN, et al. Rebound tonometry in children: A report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology. 2013;120:e21-27.

66.  Flemmons MS, Hsiao YC, Dzau J, et al. Icare rebound tonometry in children with known and suspected glaucoma. J AAPOS. 2011;15:153-157.

67.  Lopes JE, Wilson RR, Alvim HS, et al. Central corneal thickness in pediatric glaucoma. J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2007;44:112-117.

68.  Tai TY, Mills MD, Beck AD, et al. Central corneal thickness and corneal diameter in patients with childhood glaucoma. J Glaucoma. 2006;15:524-528.

69.  Dai E, Gunderson CA. Pediatric central corneal thickness variation among major ethnic populations. JAAPOS. 2006;10:22-25.

70.  Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group. Central corneal thickness in children. Arch Ophthalmol. 2011;129:1132-1138.

71.  Lisa Jean Kremer, Natalie Medlicott , Mary Jane Sime et al. Low dose or very low dose phenylephrine and cyclopentolate microdrops for retinopathy of prematurity eye examinations (The Little Eye Drop Study): a randomised controlled non-inferiority trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2023 Jul;108(4):380-386.